Month: March 2014

A Comprehensive Stroke Resource Guide

Stroke is a physiological disorder that arises as a result of insufficient supply of oxygen to the brain. Blood circulation in the arteries of the brain gets impaired due to the narrowing or hardening of the arteries causing the supply of oxygen to the brain to be cut off. In serious conditions, the arteries may rupture causing internal hemorrhages within the brain. Stroke, also known as Cerebro Vascular Accident (CVA), is one of the leading causes of deaths in the U.S. In 2006, it’s estimated that about 6,400,000 U.S. citizens suffered a stroke, which suggests that on the average, somebody suffers a stroke every 40 seconds.

 

Risk Factors

 There are several factors that contribute to stroke:

  • High blood pressure
  • Diabetes
  • High blood cholesterol level leading to atherosclerosis
  • Disturbances in heart beat

Smoking, drinking, obesity, and aging are other important causative factors leading to stroke.

Detection/ Warning Signs

Insufficient oxygen supply to the brain impairs its normal functioning. Warning signs that someone may be experiencing a stroke include:

  • Sudden severe headache
  • Weakness or numbness in one or more limbs, often encompassing one side of the body
  • Blurred vision
  • Slurred or deformed speech
  • Loss of balance and coordination

Because strokes can occur to anyone, and the results can be so severe, it is important to be able to recognize these symptoms when they occur, and seek immediate help. In serious cases, seconds can make a difference.

Types of Strokes

Strokes are categorized under two major headings:

  1. Ischemic Stroke or Cerebral Infarction: In this case, the stroke is caused by insufficient blood supply to the brain. The blood circulation in the blood vessels gets blocked, resulting in impaired oxygen supply to the brain. These blockages are mainly caused due to blood clots arising from atherosclerosis. The blood clots flow through the blood stream and cause blockages in the small arteries of the brain. The source of Ischemic strokes lies mainly in the carotid artery that arises from aorta placed just above the heart. About 85% of the strokes are Ischemic in nature.TIA (Transient Ischemic Attack) is similar to a stroke, but is of short duration and causes little inturruption in the brain’s supply of oxygen. TIAs rarely result in any lasting disability or serious consequences, though they may be a sign of a more serious problem. Most TIAs are diagnosed after the fact based on a description of the symptoms, which can include confusion, temporary numbness or weakness, and problems with balance or coordination.
  2. Hemorrhagic Stroke: In this type of stroke, a rupture occurs in a blood vessel in the brain, causing moderate to severe internal bleeding. It occurs most frequently as a result of the weakening of the arterial wall at a particular point, a condition known as aneurysm, but may also occur as the result of head trauma. This is known as hemorrhagic stroke, which is observed in about 15% of the cases. The brain is very sensitive to the presence of free-floating blood, and the reactions that occur as a result of the internal bleeding can be equally, if not more dangerous than the interruption in blood flow.Bleeding within the brain can be further categorized under Subarachnoid Hemorrhage and Intracerebral Hemorrhage. In Subarachnoid Hemorrhage, the blood vessels in the brain rupture and blood fills all the fluid filled spaces in the skull and the brain. This stroke can affect people of any age. In Intracerebral Hemorrhage, the artery in the brain ruptures due to high blood pressure and fills the surrounding tissues in the brain.

Diagnosis of Stroke

The traditional symptoms of stroke are well known to the staff and physicians of emergency rooms around the world, and will often result in immediate efforts to either confirm or rule out a stoke diagnosis. A thorough examination of the reflexes and responses of the patient guides the investigation. Imaging technologies such as CT-scan, ECG, and MRI are carried on upon consultation with the neurologist to diagnose stroke. The doctor gathers all information about the past medical history and medications in case of the diabetic and hypertensive patients.

Treatment of Stroke

The treatment of ischemic stroke is carried out by administering medication as soon as possible to dissolve the blockage responsible for the stroke. A Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA) is injected into the bloodstream through the arm within a few hours of the stroke. Other blood thinners (heparin, aspirin) and anticoagulants are also administered for quick recovery. The dose of the medication depends upon the condition of the patient, and should be administered with caution to avert hemorrhages. In some severe cases, surgical intervention is carried out to remove larger blockages.

Clipping and coiling treatments are carried out in patients with aneurysms. In the “clipping” procedure, a clip is placed at the base of the aneurysm to prevent the blood from entering. It is considered to be a permanent solution, but requires direct access to the brain through the skull. The coiling procedure is a newer development, wherein a small catheter is introduced through the femoral artery in the thigh and with the aid of sophisticated imaging technology, passed upward to the site of the aneurysm in the brain. A small platinum wire is introduced into the aneurysm, which forms a coil around which blood clots, filling the aneurysm, preventing further bleeding.

Survivors

After the patient recovers from the stroke, special care and attention is given to reduce the occurrence of long-term disability, and bring the patient back to a normal state as soon as possible. Depending on the severity of the stroke and its outcome, this can involve regular physiotherapy, speech therapy, and other nursing care with the help of professionals. In many cases, age causes hindrance to restoring the mobility of the stroke patient but through utmost care and family support, the situation can be improved. In 2006, there were approximately 138,000 people who died as a result of suffering from a stroke, but this number reflects a significant reduction as a result of modern diagnostic and treatment practices.

The long-term prognosis for stroke survivors can vary widely depending on the severity of the stroke, and the health of the patient. Patients who achieve a full recovery may often take up to a year to do so. Some patients achieve a full physical recovery, but may continue to suffer from psychological impacts which can be either the result of damage to specific portions of the brain, or the manifestation of post-traumatic stress.

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Disability Etiquette: Beyond Wheelchairs

People who live with disabilities often face fear, discomfort, and hostility at a rate that far exceeds that encountered by those who do have no disability. The vast majority of such treatment is rooted in a basic lack of understanding about the challenges that come with having a disability, and the experience of sharing the world with people who do not. People often seek to fill in gaps in their knowledge, and when information is lacking, confusion and even fear may result.

Anyone wishing to overcome this experience in themselves will be best served by first recognizing that a disability is a limited phenomenon. A physical disability may have a large impact on how an individual interacts with the physical word. A sensory disability may alter the gathering of information. These are conditions however, in no way prevent the individuals who live with them from having unique personalities, talents, knowledge, humor, and lives. People who live with disabilities have more in common than not with those who have no disability. We all share the same existence, and the same basic needs.

In order to establish a foundation, he top three considerations, as repeated in the vast majority of lists of disability etiquette concerns are:

  • Ask if a person needs assistance before attempting to assist them. All people, whether or not they live with a disability, take pride in what they are able to do. Making any assumption about a person’s abilities in any given situation can rob them of this feeling.
  • Speak directly to a person with a disability, even if he or she has an interpreter. While a person with a hearing impairment may have to look at an interpreter for communication, it is discouraging to everyone to be looked around or over when communicating with someone.
  • Ask permission before touching and assistive device or service animal. These items and creatures are the tools that the user needs to live their life. They are very important, and very personal.

Never Say Never

The more a discussion of etiquette directly relates to lifestyles and personal abilities, the more likely it is that the word “never” is used to illustrate what not to do. While this is often a useful guideline, it can be cumbersome in some situations. In some cases, people who are less experienced in respectful and positive communication may stumble over wording, and significantly impair communication efforts. In other cases, people who are living with a disability may have feelings about language that is not in keeping with the established guidelines for etiquette. Whatever the reason, the commonly recognized best practices of disability-related etiquette may not always be the preferred practices, and it is always most important for the most effective and respectful communication, to first respect the wishes of the individual.

Mobility impairment

People with mobility impairments are often the most immediately identifiable people who are living with disabilities. As such, the stigma that our culture attaches to these people out of fear and ignorance, often impacts people with mobility impairments most frequently, and most harshly.

Developmental and Cognitive Disabilities

Developmental and cognitive disabilities are an extremely broad, but very interconnected category. Both types of disability frequently occur together as a result of a single causal factor, though they just as frequently occur individually. While an experienced and compassionate person may be able to recognize that a person has a developmental disability, there is often no way of knowing whether the person also suffers from a cognitive disability without interacting with that person. Likewise, cognitive disabilities may occur in people who do not appear externally to have any disability whatsoever. It may take observation of behavior and interaction to determine how to communicate most appropriately with someone. Further, a basic recognition that a person’s behavior differs from the range that is considered mainstream may not absolutely indicate a cognitive disability, but could be a result of a mental illness (see below) or simply a personality quirk that does not constitute a disability. Lastly, a person with a cognitive disability may not be recognizable in casual interaction. Conditions such as dyslexia, and attention deficit are classified as cognitive disabilities, and can reasonably require both accommodation and sensitivity, but neither will necessarily be immediately apparent. It is in this broad category that the most care must be taken in making assumptions about what a person is or is not capable of doing on their own or with assistance.

Blindness

Make no assumptions about what someone who is blind can and cannot do. Modern assistive technology has made things that were formerly inaccessible to the blind commonplace. A primary example is computer usage, which has become a nearly ubiquitous skill for sighted people, and is rapidly becoming standardized as audio screen readers and web standards converge.

  • Being a sighted guide A reference on the established protocol for assisting someone as a sighted guide
  • Blind Etiquette 101 Some words of advice from a person who lives with a vision impairment
  • Etiquette A rundown of etiquette considerations for people interacting with those who are blind in social and professional situations

Deafness

Deafness is an extremely common disability, and one which does not present the same mobility issues faced by many other people with disabilities. This, combined with modern support for signing (which was once discouraged as a form of communication) has resulted in vibrant deaf communities springing up around the world. Still, interacting with a person who is deaf can be challenging, as deafness presents a communication barrier not experienced by most people who live with disabilities.

Mental Illness

People living with mental illness may or may not have a disability. The specific criteria for determining the nature or severity of a psychiatric condition that constitutes a disability constantly shifts, but generally rests on a consideration of the level of impairment of daily activities suffered by the person in question. The biggest barrier faced by people living with mental illness is the lack of understanding which is nearly universal to almost all psychiatric disorders. Stigma, and the accompanying ignorance, remains the primary barrier to overcome.

Additional Resources

  • Focus on Ability Tips for employers interviewing applicants who have disabilities
  • Developing Sites A guide to web development for users who have cognitive or learning disabilities (most accessible design is focused on visual disabilities)
  • Discribing People With Disabilities A resource on people first language, for use when talking about people who have disabilities

Mistakes Will Be Made

Everyone will at some point make a mistake in conversation. This is one occasion that requires absolutely no special consideration for people who live with disabilities. As when interacting with anyone else, when a mistake is made, simply apologize. People who live with disabilities learn early and unequivocally that others are frequently uncomfortable interacting with them. Most people who have lived with a disability since birth (and many who have not) have experienced bullying and harassment as a result of individual ignorance. A conversational error will not be the harshest experience suffered by any person living with a disability. An apology is an acknowledgement of an error, and of a person’s intention to be sensitive. Communicating an awareness of etiquette and concern for an individual’s feelings may even set one apart from the crowd, and be the first step toward making a new friend.

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People First Language: I Am Not My Wheelchair

Consider the sentence:

“Christopher Reeve was a wheelchair-bound actor.”

To those familiar with his career before he suffered the accident which lead to his paralysis, this would be a gross misrepresentation of a popular and beloved figure. Why then, is it acceptable to characterize others in similar ways – even if they have lived with a disability from birth?

People who live with disabilities face social challenges daily, and they may feel uncomfortable when ordinary people refer to them as “disabled people”. Some basic consideration of the language that we use to talk with and about people with disabilities can make a substantial difference in the atmosphere within a workplace, classroom, social situation, or even in casual encounters. The characterization of people with disabilities as people first and foremost can be the difference between recognition and dismissal of a person who has ability, interests, and ambition. For instance:

  • “Ray Charles was a blind musician” minimizes his accomplishments, and frames them as occurring in spite of his disability. “Ray Charles was a world-renowned musician who was blind” is a recognition of his individuality and talent, above the disability which he lived with.
  • “Helen Keller was deaf and blind” defines her solely in terms of her disability, and entirely ignores her career as a human rights activist and writer. “Helen Keller was the author of 12 books, and was the first deaf-blind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree” identifies her as a person who was intelligent and motivated, regardless of her sensory disabilities.
  • “Franklin Delano Roosevelt was a disabled politician” seems an almost absurd description of a man who became one of the most respected Presidents of the United States. His accomplishments are so well known and regarded that they eclipse the fact that he spent much of his life in a wheelchair as a result of a battle with polio. Does this then suggest that there is a threshold beyond which a person with a disability must achieve to be afforded an identity beyond their physical, sensory, or cognitive impairment?

People first language is defined as a linguistic prescriptivism that seeks to eliminate dehumanization of people with disabilities. It helps those who don’t live with a disability recognize people with disabilities as individuals with personalities and identities that are distinct from their disability. The most basic and effective use of the language is to identify people with disabilities by their names.

Because people first language is intended to increase the communicated level of respect in interaction between people who have disabilities and people who do not, it is recommended that it be a consideration in all such interaction. However, the extent of its use should be determined situationally. If including people first language in a single sentence is cumbersome, and causes a speaker to stumble over words, it may not be ideal or critical that the most explicit and clear people first language be used. Some feel that extreme adherence to people first language constitutes excessive political correctness, and takes the focus away from effective communication. In all cases, it is important to consider the context of the communication, and the wishes of the people involved. Likewise, if a party to a communication feels that any of the language used is inappropriate or not useful, they should make this known, for the sake of fostering an environment of mutual respect and positive interaction.

Many educational institutions that serve young children encourage people first language in order to establish an environment of respect and inclusion early in a child’s social development – both for the sake of children who live with disabilities, and for those who do not.

Here are links to more information about people first language:

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State Accessibility Laws

By law, people with disabilities are ensured equal opportunities. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibits discrimination based on disabilities in public accommodations, employment, transportation, telecommunications, commercial facilities, and state and local government. Along with the Americans with Disabilities Act, each state has their own laws regarding disability rights. The following resources will help you learn about the disability rights laws in your state.

Alabama Disabilities Advocacy Program

Alaska Disability Law Center

Arizona Center For Disability Law

Arkansas Disability Rights Center

California Disability Laws and Regulations

Colorado Disability Advocacy

Connecticut Disability Laws and Benefits

Delaware Disabilities Law Program

District of Columbia Disability Law Center

Florida Disability Law Resources

Georgia Disability and Mental Health

Hawaii Disability Rights Center

Idaho Disability Laws

Illinois Disability Rights

Indiana Disability Laws

Iowa Disability Law Resources

Kansas Disability Rights Center

Kentucky Office of Disabilities

Louisiana Disability Laws

Maine Disability Law Resources

Maryland Disability Law Center

Massachusetts Disability Law Center

Michigan Disability Law Resources

Minnesota Disability Law Center

Mississippi Disability Rights

Missouri Disability Information

Montana Disability Rights

Nebraska Disability Rights Advocacy

Nevada Disability Law Center

New Hampshire Disabilities Rights Center

New Jersey Disability Laws

New Mexico Disability Rights

New York Disability & Health Laws

North Carolina Disability Rights

North Dakota Disability Services

Ohio American Disabilities Act

Oklahoma Disability Law Center

Oregon Disability Rights

Pennsylvania Disability Rights Network

Rhode Island Disability Law Center

South Carolina Disability Law Resources

South Dakota Disability Determination Services

Tennessee Disability Law Center

Texas Disability Law Resources

Utah Disability Law Center

Vermont Coalition for Disability Rights

Virginia Disability Rights Services

Washington Disability Rights Laws

West Virginia Disability Laws

Wisonconsin Disability Law

Wyoming Disability Laws

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Molecular Biology Resources Online

Molecular biology is a branch of science which studies biological systems at a molecular level. The purview of molecular biology often overlaps with fields such as biochemistry and genetics, since molecular biology closely studies cell systems and their complex interactions. Protein biosynthesis, DNA, and RNA patterns are also explored by molecular biologists.

History of Molecular Biology

The name molecular biology was coined in 1938 by Warren Weaver of the Rockefeller Foundation’s Natural Sciences department. Though studies in molecular biology started as early as the 1930’s, it was not until the 1950’s that major strides were taken in the field. The Rockefeller institute helped popularize molecular biology by funding several molecular biology research projects. The advances in X-ray crystallography contributed greatly to the filed of molecular biology as well. In the 1960’s, biologists finally succeeded in isolating, characterizing, and even manipulating molecular cell components such as DNA.

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

In 1958, Francis Crick articulated the central dogma of molecular biology. Subsequently, he re-stated the central dogma in 1970. The central dogma explains the sequential information transfer in terms of detailed residue transfer. It also states that information cannot be re-transferred from protein to nucleic acid or protein. To better understand the framework of sequential information transfers comprising of biopolymers, the central dogma is often used. The central dogma also categorizes the biopolymers into three groups, namely the DNA, RNA, and the proteins. Furthermore, the central dogma further sub-divides the groups into three classes: the 3 general transfers, the three special transfers, and the three unknown transfers.

Molecular Biology Techniques

There are a number of important molecular biology techniques which help scientists to isolate or manipulate the molecular cell components.

  • Expression Cloning – This method is considered a basic technique for studying protein functions. In this technique, the protein’s DNA coding is cloned into an expression vector called a plasmid. This plasmid may or may not contain promoter elements for producing protein of interest.
  • Polymerase Chain Reaction – This technique is used for DNA copying since it’s very versatile. In PCR, a DNA sequence can be easily copied thousands of times or can even be altered.
  • Gel Electrophoresis – This technique is based on the premise that electric fields can separate proteins, DNA, and RNA molecules. The agarose gel electrophoresis is the technique wherein agarose gel is used to separate RNA and DNA.
  • Southern Blotting – Southern Blotting is the technique for finding out a particular DNA sequence which is present in a DNA sample. After the DNA samples are separated by gel electrophoresis, they are passed on to a membrane by blotting.
  • Northern Blotting – The northern blotting technique helps in the better understanding of a specific RNA molecule’s expression patterns.
  • Western Blotting – In western blotting, small amounts of protein are injected into animal specimens such as a mouse, creating the antibodies of the proteins. When produced by using animals as agents, they are called polyclonal antibodies and when produced in a cell culture, they’re known as monoclonal antibodies.
  • Eastern Blotting – A protein’s post-translational modification can be identified by the eastern blotting technique. A few specific substrates are used for probing the modifications of the blotted proteins.

Additional Information and Techniques

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Caregiver Day of Action – July 28, 2010

The experience of helping loved ones in need can be both rewarding and trying. Over the last ten years 1800wheelchair.com has helped tens of thousands of care givers with mobility related issues. We often hear the same questions and struggles. Using Meetup.com’s Everywhere platform we hope to bring people together to discuss what they’ve learned, share stories and maybe inspire each other.

The first meetups will all take place on the same day – July 28th, 2010.  These events are for you, by you, so meet wherever you like. If you find these meetings helpful, feel free to organize more. Meetup.com can help with that.

After July 28th, we’ll open it up, allowing you to create events for any date and time you prefer.

 

 

 

FAQs

Can anyone be involved? I don’t live in the U.S. Can I still participate?

Yes, the 1800wheelchair cargivers meetup is all about connecting with other local cargivers in your community to share and learn, no matter where in the world you live.

Do I have to be a 1800wheelchair customer to join?

No, this event is open to everyone to attend.  

Do I have to have an Meetup account to join in these meetings?

No, you can RSVP with your Facebook sign-in, if you don’t have a Meetup account. If you don’t have a Facebook account or a Meetup account, you’ll need one or the other to RSVP and/or step up as an organizer for a cargivers meetup. It’s free and easy to sign up.

Can we change the time of the event?

Yes. The event organizer can change the time and set the location of the event.

Can I add a new Meetup to the map, even if my town already has one?

Yes, pick a convenient location.  The idea here is to foster face to face connections.  And, if the current Meetup is too far away, feel free to schedule another.

Does using the Meetup Everywhere tool cost money?

Nope. The Meetup Everywhere site is free and creating a Meetup.com account is free. You might want to pitch in for refreshments and drinks.

What do we do at the cargiver meeups?

That is up to you to decide. We hope you’ll all share stories, propose new ideas and ask questions. It’s an open forum.  

What’s the difference between Meetup Everywhere and Meetup Groups?

Meetup Everywhere is not a Meetup Group. A Meetup Group is a local community group. Meetup Everywhere is a simple way to spark Meetups all over the world.

This sounds great. How can I help get the word out?

Help us spread the word. Email, Facebook, tweet, call … anything.  Just invite your friends to this link: https://www.meetup.com/caregiver/

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The Game of Quad Rugby

Quad rugby is a sport that was developed for individuals and athletes who have upper body disabilities. The event typically takes place on a basketball court in which the players are in wheelchairs. Originally known as “murder ball”, quad rugby has transformed into a popular Paralympic sport practiced in over twenty countries. Established in 1993, the sport of quad rugby is governed by the International Wheelchair Rugby Federations.

Wheelchair, or quad, rugby was developed in 1976 in the country of Canada by five Canadian wheelchair athletes. Jerry Terwin, Randy Dueck, Chris Sargent, Duncan Campbell and Paul LeJeune created quad rugby to be a sport for quadriplegics. The sport required its players to dribble and shoot baskets. Each team is made up of four players and allowed unlimited substitutes. Quad rugby is played with a volleyball which is carried, batted or passed with the object of the game being to get the ball across the 20 meter goal. Chair contact with other players with or without the ball is encouraged and the player with the ball must dribble or pass the ball in intervals of ten seconds.

  • Quad Rugby History: The history of quad rugby (wheelchair rugby), field dimensions and rules of the game.
  • USA Paralympics: Official United States of America Paralympic website with performance plans, selection procedures and team rosters.
  • Adaptive Sports Program: Wheelchair rugby as an adaptive sports program as a rehabilitation option with videos of a quad rugby game.

In 2005, a documentary film called ‘Murderball’ was directed by Henry Alex Rubin and Dana Adam Shapiro. The Oscar nominated film focuses on the rivalry between Canadian and U.S rugby teams. The low budget film is about quadriplegics who play the sport of quad (wheelchair) rugby which lead up to the 2004 Paralympics games. The film was nominated in the 78th Academy Awards for ‘Best Documentary Feature’. The major international quad rugby competitions are held in Zone Championships, or each odd numbered year. In even numbered years, the World Championships are held, opposite the Paralympics Games and the Summer Paralympics Games.

Quad rugby is a competitive, fast-paced sport for individuals with quadriplegia. There are over 50 hard-hitting quad rugby teams in the United States alone and over 20 international teams, making this wheelchair sport one of the most popular Paralympic events.

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An Overview of Stephen Hawking

This article is brought to you by 1800wheelchair – The Power Wheelchair Store.

When life throws you a lemon, you don’t sulk, complain or feel sorry for yourself. Instead, you just make lemonade. You make the most of the situation that is handed to you, just as Stephen Hawking has done in his lifetime of accomplishments, achievements and deeds while being severely disabled. Mr. Hawking is an extraordinary human being who defeated all odds and stood his ground in maintaining his sense of humor and integrity, despite his physical limitations. Society puts him in the same category as Albert Einstein and Isaac Newton for his knowledge and experience in Physics, Mathematics and Cosmology. He is a man defined not only by his disability, but by his accomplishments and his contributions to science.

  • The Early Years

Stephen Hawking is a Physics professor at Cambridge University, located in Cambridge, England. His expertise and passion dwells in that of Cosmology, the study of the universe. He was born during World War II, and given the name of Stephen William Hawking on January 8, 1942 in Oxford England. Although it was his father’s dream for his son to become a doctor like himself, Stephen chose not to follow in his father’s footsteps for his love was in Mathematics, Physics, Science and Astronomy. As a boy growing up, he was enrolled at St. Albans at the age of eleven. Though today, he is noted for his work as a researcher, which details a lot of reading and analyzing, as a child Stephen’s reading was at a low level. He found it to be more satisfying trying to figure out how things work, than it was reading text books. Figuring things out on his own opened doors that put him on his career path.

  • The Incurable Disease

Stephen admits that as a child his first challenge was that of being physically uncoordinated. This physical problem led him to shy away from activities dealing with sports. However, the minor set back did not keep him from entering competitions in rowing and coxing at the age of seventeen. It was at the age of twenty-one that he began noticing some more changes in his coordination, more accidents would occur, like falling for no apparent reason. After many tests and hospital visits, he was diagnosed with an incurable disease that would eventually leave him permanently disabled. Today he lives his life confined to a wheelchair and speaking through a voice synthesizer, because the disease has claimed his voice and destroyed the muscles in his body, which leaves him paralyzed. The incurable disease that has taken over his body is Lou Gehrig’s disease, or ALS as it is sometimes called.

  • His Published Works

The defining man not only loves doing research, giving lectures and interviews. He has a passion for writing as well. He is an author whose contributions include book publications and essays. His first book published is entitled: A Brief History of Time which was followed by two more published works: Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays. Another book was published in 2001 entitled The Universe in a Nutshell. All of which, shows his enthusiasm and interest in Cosmology. Mr. Hawking has proven that he is unstoppable, even in a wheelchair.

  • Conclusion

Hawking is a man of integrity, strength and determination. He is also humble, because regardless of his accomplishments while living with his disability, he still claims that he is no genius. Though in a wheelchair, Hawking is married and has a family. Besides his accomplishments in research, he has won recognition for being on TV Programs such as Star Trek: The Next Generation and being entertained at the White House. With all the things that this man has accomplished, it goes to show that a disability may slow you down and interrupt your life, but it doesn’t have to mean that your life is over. You can still do great things and prove your worth.

Below are lists of links that will lead to interesting reading on the life and accomplishments of Stephen William Hawking, the man who didn’t let being disabled stop him from living.

Hawkins at the University of Cambridge

The Man and His Contributions

About Professor Stephen Hawking

Cosmology at Cambridge

A Glimpse into His Personal Life

Facing the Medical Emergency

An Interview with Stephen Hawking

An Essay on Hawking

 Witnessing a Stephen Hawking Lecture

Beating the Odds

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What Type of Wheelchair Vehicle is Best For Me?

Deciding which type of accessible vehicle to drive or use for transportation is difficult. Almost any type of vehicle can be modified to accommodate accessible transportation, but one stands out as the best wheelchair vehicle for families, businesses, or public transportation.

WHEELCHAIR MINIVANS Wheelchair minivans come out on top as the best wheelchair vehicle all around. They offer affordable pricing, lots of interior space, great gas mileage, quick access, and top safety ratings. Buyers can choose from side and rear entry wheelchair vans with a power or manual ramp for easy access in and out of the vehicle. Minivans have a low center of gravity and drive like a car making them very gas efficient and easy to drive. Some minivans such as the wheelchair vans offered by AMS Vans also negate the need for an expensive kneeling system by extending the ramp 4 inches. This saves the customer thousands of dollars versus other national brands.

FULL SIZED VANS Most full size conversion vans use a lift rather than a ramp. Lift systems are significantly more expensive than ramps in addition to the vehicle itself being more expensive than a minivan. Full size vans are built on a truck chassis making driving and maneuverability extremely challenging. Full size vans have either captain’s chair seating or bench seating that forces the buyer to choose less passenger seating or benches that a caregiver would have to crawl over to get to a passenger. Full size vans have very low gas mileage and a high center of gravity making it less stable than a minivan. Most full size vans carry the additional expense of needing the back doors widened to accommodate a lift or ramp and possibly the roof raised. Using a ramp is possible with full sized vans, however a kneeling system is required adding thousands to your accessible conversion.

SUVS SUVs are stylish, popular, and often coming standard with four wheel drive for off road driving. While this feature is nice in the occasional snow storm, the low gas mileage, expensive maintenance, higher insurance rates, and unstable high center of gravity doesn’t really make it worth the trade. Making an SUV accessible is extremely costly by adding transfer seats, kneeling systems and expensive unreliable hitch mounted lifts. While SUVs are as big or bigger than a minivan, most of the cargo space is taken up by bench seating for passengers. Once you transfer a user out of the chair and onto the seat and store the wheelchair in the relatively small space in the back for cargo, your storage space is cut in half.

CARS While cars are typically good on gas, easy to drive, and stylish, using one as accessible transportation can be difficult. Since they are so low to the ground, transferring out of the wheelchair and into the car can put not only the wheelchair user at risk, but the person assisting at risk for injury. Using a car requires the use of a foldable wheelchair, a portable wheelchair that does not necessarily offer the same customized comfort amenities as the user’s wheelchair he/she uses all the time. Once a portable wheelchair is placed in the trunk, it becomes basically useless with all the space taken up from the chair.

MOTORCYCLES Motorcycles are fun, environmentally friendly vehicles that can be customized to a wheelchair user. Wheelchair users can purchase add on packages to either drive from their chair, slide from their chair onto a common motorcycle seat that is stored inside a lift attached to the back of the bike, or ride in their chair shotgun via a side car. While an exhilarating hobby, most area climates are not conducive to year round motorcycle use since you and your chair are exposed to the elements. Motorcycle accidents are among the most horrific on the road since they are not surrounded by a metal frame, and they are less visible to other drivers. Using a motorcycle for your primary accessible transportation only allows the wheelchair user and possibly one other rider to use it at the same time so the versatility of the vehicle is rather limited.

PICK UP TRUCKS Pick up trucks have the same unstable high center of gravity and low gas mileage as SUVs. An expensive transfer chair or robotic system is required to transfer in and out of the cab of the truck. Even with the purchase of high dollar king or extended cab trucks, the wheelchair has to be transported in the bed of the truck which is exposed to the elements critically reducing the life of your chair.

Finding the best wheelchair vehicle for yourself, your family, or your business can be a daunting task, but you are on the right path towards making the right decision and enjoying the mobility freedom you deserve.

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Multiple Sclerosis (MS) Information Page

Multiple sclerosis, commonly known as MS, is a disease that affects the nerves of the central nervous system. An insulation to the nerves known as myelin improves the impulses that maintain the health of the nerves. When an individual has multiple sclerosis, inflammation in the nervous system (spinal cord and brain) causes the myelin to degenerate. These nerves then become damaged, which can affect a person’s vision, walking, speech, memory and writing. The cause of multiple sclerosis is unknown but researchers have narrowed the reasoning down to genetics and disorders of the immune system. Common symptoms of MS include tingling, loss of balance, blurred or double vision, numbness, weakness in limbs, slurred speech, cognitive problems, lack of coordination, and sudden paralysis. While there is no one test to diagnosis multiple sclerosis, a series of criteria is used to diagnosis the disease.

 

Criteria used to diagnosis multiple sclerosis:

  • Onset of MS typically occurs between 20 to 50 years of age
  • Symptoms and signs are present
  • Two or more lesions are found during an MRI scan
  • Evidence of brain or spinal disease is found during an examination
  • Two or more episodes of impaired function that lasts at least 24 hours
  • No other explanation is found for the patients symptoms
  • Multiple Sclerosis Foundation: Official foundation for individuals living with multiple sclerosis, programs and activities, publications and more.

Living with and Managing MS

Multiple sclerosis is a life long disease that can affect many aspects of daily life and present challenges to those who have it. Symptoms of MS typically come and go and therefore cause a certain ‘lack of control’ to sufferers of the disease. A treatment plan that includes medications, therapy, and lifestyle changes can help control MS. Every case of MS is dramatically different and can affect individuals in various ways. While some cases remain benign and patients only suffer small infrequent attacks, others can progress rapidly and cause intense degenerative symptoms that become worse with each attack.

  • Learning about MS: Find information about multiple sclerosis, how it affects aspects of your health, and conventional treatments.

Treatment

Both drug therapy and rehabilitation techniques have been extremely effective in managing multiple sclerosis. Avonex, Copazone, Betaseron, Extavia, Novatrone, Tysabri, and Rebif are some of the most common agents used in medications to reduce disease progression. Physical, occupational, cognitive, and vocational rehabilitation can be used throughout all stages of MS to help control symptoms. Lifestyle changes including change in diet and exercise, relaxation techniques, naturopathy, and herbal healing have all been used in place of conventional treatments.

  • Bee Sting Therapy: Learn how bee sting therapy, or apitherapy, can be used as a treatment for multiple sclerosis.
  • The Best Bet Treatment: How a mixture of therapy, medications, and lifestyle changes can act as an effective MS treatment plan.
  • Treatment and Diagnosis: MS treatment options for children and adolescents involving medications and rehabilitation methods.

Cognitive Functioning

More than half of patients with multiple sclerosis experience cognitive problems that include defects of the memory, attention, and abstraction. Mood disorders, such as bipolar disorder and depression, are also frequently found in those with MS. Factors that exacerbate the cognition processes include sleep problems, heat, fatigue, stress, depression, and external distractions. A strict MS treatment plan as well as avoidance of these factors can be excellent coping strategies.

  • Cognitive Thinking with MS: How motor and sensory skills, vision, coordination, speech as well as other factors can be affected by MS.
  • Multiple Sclerosis Study: Cognitive function study of multiple sclerosis to investigate impairment of intellectual patterns.

Multiple Sclerosis Research

New treatment options and important information is presented through multiple sclerosis research organizations, medical centers, and individuals researchers. Current research projects by various medical universities develop programs to study secondary conditions of multiple sclerosis, compare levels of pain, and conduct self-management trails and training. Clinical trails for MS patients are constantly being conducted by the Multiple Sclerosis Foundation to find new medical therapies for treatment plans. Government-funded clinical research is also being presented at various National Institutes of Health.

  • Studies & Participation: Multiple sclerosis genetic studies and participations featuring new statistical methods for patients.

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The Pharmacology Resource Page

The study of science changes everyday with the growing prevalence of technology and continuous progress being made in a variety of different fields in science. Scientists have discovered new ways to approach, and information relating to, medicine and the human body. Pharmacology is studied by scientists who help to determine how drugs and different types of medication may heal and aid the body in resisting diseases and infections. Pharmacology is broken down into many divisions pertaining to a variety of subtopics, including a drug’s affect on living cells to the chemicals that may be dangerous to our bodies. The information and links provided will ensure a better understanding of pharmacology and the way it has developed and grown in it’s significance in recent years.

All About Pharmacology

Pharmacology is the scientific study of drugs, including what different types of drugs do, how they work, and specific types of drugs that are used for different ailments. The study of pharmacology also relates to how the human body adapts and reacts to different drugs. Pharmacology and Pharmacy, while they may uphold some of the same principles, are still very different studies. Pharmacy is the scientific study of preparing and dispensing medications for human consumption. Pharmacy reports the chemical interactions between a given medication and the human body. Both studies share similarities in reporting the study of physiological reactions of the body to a medication. Another aspect within the study of pharmacology is how drugs are metabolized within the body.

  • Pharmacology: Explore and learn more about pharmacology.
  • Study of Drugs: More information relating to pharmacology and a PDF file to Nobel Prize Awards given to scientists in physiology and medicine.
  • Timeline: Learn about the history of pharmacology from 1790 to the 2000s.

Pharmacology Origins

Oswald Schmiedeberg is credited as the founder of today’s modern pharmacology. Schmiedeberg showed that the vagus nerve and heart were both effected by muscularity. His studies launched the pharmaceutical beliefs in Germany up until World War II. Prior to this mankind used natural elements, including animal parts and plants to treat injuries and wounds. In thebirth and creation of pharmacology, Germany’s Friedrich Wohler changed the theory of that time that stated living compounds were only established in organic cells. Wohler became known for his works and established the first compound of pharmacology.

  • History: Obtain a brief history of pharmacology and early scientists.
  • Origins: PDF file of the origins and history of pharmacology in the 16 th century.
  • EBPS: The history of the European Behavioral Pharmacology.
  • Friedrich Wohler: A brief biography of the German chemist.
  • Discoveries: An article giving great detail about very important early studies of pharmacology and the people who performed early studies.
  • Drug History: Learn more about how drugs were developed.

Divisions of Pharmacology

There are several distinct divisions in the field of pharmacology, each with a specific focus. Clinical pharmacology addresses the scientific clinical use of drugs. Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect the nervous system. A third division is characterized as the study of pharmacogenetics, which means the testing of genes and how they interact with drugs, while pharmacogenomics relate to combining gene information to a drug’s damage organism. Pharmacoepidemiology studies drug substances and the way they affect numerous groups of people. Toxicology also falls into the greater field of pharmacology and addresses chemicals and how they affect living organisms in the body. Theoretical pharmacology is a study of theory or an idea relating to the study of drugs.Posology deals with the amount of drugs capable for the body. Pharmacognosy studies the properties of drugs in the natural stages such as the medicinal benefits of plants and other types of organisms. The last division is behavioral pharmacology which studies the way drugs affect the way a person acts or behaves. As one can see, there are many different branches of pharmacology, each is very specialized and is creditedwith a variety of different contributions to the scientific community.

  • Pharmacogenetics: Basic understanding of pharmacogenetics and ethical issues.
  • Pharmacogenomics: Detailed information and how pharmacogenomics is used today.
  • Posology: More information about what is posology.
  • Behavioral Pharmacology: Organization that helps members learn more about how drugs affect a person’s behavior.

Pharmacology Research

The study of science is constantly changing and progressing at an unprecedented rate of growth. The accelerated rate at which the field of sciences progresses poses unique challenges to the scientific community as we continue to develop “before their time” methods of research and explore the unknowns of the science community. Scientists continue to perform numerous tests and experiments on newly developed drugs to analyze their effects on the human body and their viability as quality medical resources. A variety of different reviews and analysis have been created within the medical community to critique experiments on the effects of experimental drugs to protect the global community and to ensure that harmful drugs are unknowingly prescribed by physicians.

  • Drugs: Online drug source updated daily about recent drug information and news for over 24,000 prescription drugs.
  • Review: a PDF review of the pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide.
  • Pathological Conditions: PDF file of pharmacological research of antioxidants in pathological conditions.
  • Pharmacology: PDF review of the myths and claims about cocoa being healthy for the human body.
  • Research: PDF analysis of pharmacological research.
  • Principles: PDF file of the study of the basic principles of pharmacology. 377 pages of detailed material.

Medicine Development, Drug Legislation and Safety

Medicine first began with the practice of using plants and animals to heal wounds, injuries and sores, from the earliest development of the New Stone Age Period. But over time, it has morphed into the form of pills, pure liquid and other substances. An example of the profound pharmacological developments that have taken place in recorded history is the first study that proved that blood maintained a continuous flow, which came from the Chinese emperor Huang-Ti. It wasn’t until 750 BCE whenSusruta , a Hindu surgeon first practiced eye surgery. Long before the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved such procedures and their accompanying drugs, they were being used medicinally, a testament of the commitment to experimentation and development that has been evident in medical community. All drugs are not legal for use due to safety rules and regulations, and ways it could affect the human body. The Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987 ensures the safety of prescription drugs, while the 1988 Anti-drug Abuse Act prohibit abusive drug use that may harm the body. Regulations of safety issues are done from inspections and properly using labels approved by the FDA.

  • FDA: Links that provide information to learn more about the process of drug safety and drug approvals.
  • Drugs: A complete full list of the FDA approved drugs in alphabetical order and links to provide more information on each drug.
  • Recall Drugs: A list of approved and recalled drugs from 1980 to 2007.
  • History: A timeline of the history of medicine from 2600 BC to 2006.
  • Drug Marking Act: Detailed information about the Drug Marketing Act of 1987.
  • Anti-Drug Abuse Act: Detailed information about the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988.
  • FDA: More information about the FDA and what it is.
  • Herbal Remedies: Information on some of the Chinese scientists who discovered and experimented with herbal medicine.

Glossaries and Drug Lists

One of the challenges that the medical community has consistently encountered is that each human body reacts differently to each drug introduced into the system. If a patient reacts unusually or out of the scope of the anticipated reaction, it would be very important to document the drug reactions and seek treatment immediately. Further testing may be necessary to determine the cause of the abnormal reaction and to detect any possible allergy. If you recognize symptoms you’re having that relate to some diseases or illnesses after taking drugs, then it’s best to document the drug reaction and seek medical attention. To prevent patients from experiencing unanticipated side effects to medication, numerous organizations and publishers have released drug indexes and guide books to help both medical professionals and consumers better prescribe and understand the complexities behind each manufactured drug. Understanding the chemistry, the intended use, and the effects of experimental drugs is critical to achieving a positive outcome and correctly providing medical attention to patients.

  • Glossary: A list of links of all the glossary terms and symbols used in pharmacology.
  • Pharmacology: A list of terms listed on one page in alphabetical order.
  • Symbols: A list of commonly used terms and abbreviations along with their meanings.
  • Drug Lists: A list of drugs in alphabetical order along with their uses, side effects, and components.
  • Review: Clinical pharmacology and medical reviews of 88 terms in PDF form.

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Resources for Parents of Children with Special Needs

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Cerebral Palsy Information

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Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of conditions caused by medical abnormalities in the development of a fetus or the early life of a child. These lead to damage or delayed development in the brain. The disorder is permanent and, though it does not worsen with age, the level of functionality of a person with cerebral palsy varies widely: in some cases, effects may be very minor, while in others, movement is impaired to the extent that a wheelchair is required. Common complications associated with CP vary by the type of CP disorder but can include vision problems, seizures, learning disabilities, and issues speaking, writing, and performing other tasks related to motor control.

Causes of Cerebral Palsy

Cerebral palsy is generally caused by developmental issues during pregnancy which lead to abnormal conditions in the brain. During the birth process, lack of oxygen caused by premature delivery or delivery-room errors can cause brain damage that facilitates cerebral palsy. Cerebral palsy can also be caused by recognizable brain injuries sustained by the developing child up to an early age after birth. Medical research continues to uncover the many risk factors that may be associated with CP cases. Effective maternal care, ensuring a healthy diet and environment for the mother, is vital for ensuring that preventable cases of CP do not occur.

Developmental Disabilities: Cerebral Palsy: Referenced fact-sheet on cerebral palsy compiled by the Centers for Disease Control.

Cerebral Palsy at Medline Plus: Information from the online medical encyclopedia of the National Institutes of Health.

What Are The Causes of Cerebral Palsy?: A compendium of information on a huge number of topics related to CP, with a particular focus on the health and future of children with the disorder, from the nonprofit organization 4MyChild.

Causes of Cerebral Palsy: Information about the types and causes of CP as provided by Lawyers, Inc., a national medical malpractice law firm.

Origins, Etiology, Forms, Associated Conditions: Detailed, cited information about the causes and types of cerebral palsy.

Types of CP Associated With Muscle Tone

Cerebral palsy comes in several types, which may be associated with muscle tone or specific body parts. Those associated with muscle tone include: spastic CP, where abnormally high muscle tone causes problems with movement, usually in the legs and hips; ataxia, which is marked by involuntary muscle movements; athetoid, which prevents sufferers from maintaining a fixed muscle position (for example, grasping and holding); and mixed, where symptoms of both spastic and athetoid CP occur.

Cerebral Palsy: Hope Through Research: Detailed information from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, including facts on the causes, risk factors, warning signs, and types of CP.

Definitions and Accommodations for Cerebral Palsy: Information on the types of CP and how to accommodate and interact with severe sufferers. From Kentucky’s Office for the Americans With Disabilities Act.

United Cerebral Palsy Association: Nonprofit organization that offers a nationwide network of affiliates aimed at expanding the rights, freedoms, and opportunities of those with cerebral palsy.

Health Encyclopedia: Cerebral Palsy: Facts on the types, causes, prevalence, and accommodations related to cerebral palsy. Provided by the Florida Agency for Health Care Administration.

Cost of Cerebral Palsy: Information on the human and economic impact of cerebral palsy, presented in the form of an academic report composed by the Environmental Protection Agency.

Types of CP Associated With Body Parts

Certain types of cerebral palsy are associated with specific body parts rather than with the general condition of the muscular system. These types include: quadriplegia, in which all four limbs suffer severe motor dysfunction and a general inability to work together; hemiplegia, in which the limbs on one side of the body are severely affected, with the impact more pronounced in the digits; and diplegia, which causes problems with muscle development, balance, and coordination in both legs.

Cerebral Palsy Syndromes: Detailed “manual” of information about the diagnosis and treatment of cerebral palsy, including rarer forms of the disorder.

PubMed Calculated Links: Publicly-accessible database of published scholarly research on cerebral palsy, from a database of the U.S. National Library of Medicine.

Hemi-Kids: Support group for parents with children suffering from hemiplegia and hemiplegic cerebral palsy.

Children’s Hemiplegia and Stroke Association: Another, similar nonprofit organization focusing on support for youth hemiplegia.

Living with Cerebral Palsy

Cerebral palsy can create severe problems that persist throughout the sufferer’s day-to-day life. Many cases of CP involve at least some involuntary movement that can disrupt normal activities. Others involve a persistent lack of muscle control that makes walking, standing, or manipulating objects difficult or impossible. Those with CP may have problems talking, eating, or breathing. They may also have learning impairments, seizures, or other major neurological problems. Those with the most serious cases of CP require intensive, lifelong medical attention, and cannot effectively care for themselves independently due to cognitive disruptions or reliance on medical equipment.

KidsHealth: Cerebral Palsy: Information on coping with cerebral palsy aimed at children.

Cerebral Palsy Family Network: Information on living with CP and networking with other sufferers and their families. Aimed at parents and planning long-term care for children with severe CP.

Whispers of Hope: Living With CP: Even more electronic resources for networking and overcoming life challenges related to cerebral palsy.

Equipment

There is a vast and growing body of products aimed at restoring independence and fullness of life to sufferers of CP. Wheelchairs are available that can accommodate the needs of a wide variety of CP patients; walkers, canes, and other assistive devices are also available. For those with impaired fine motor control, small objects such as pencils and silverware have been designed in accessible forms. Patients who are unable to speak may use communication devices that interpret the movements of the throat or the input of a small keyboard in order to create recognizable vocalizations – much in the same way as noted physicist Stephen Hawking. For all of the daily challenges associated with CP, in whatever form, some assistive measure exists or is being researched.

Ontario Federation for Cerebral Palsy: Information packet that covers a variety of topics related to all aspects of living with CP.

New Horizons Un-Limited: Resource page focusing entirely on adaptive equipment for various issues often associated with CP.

Cerebral Palsy Accessories and Equipment: Impartial, nonprofit review website for all categories of assistive equipment related to the lives of CP sufferers.

Therapy

Those with cerebral palsy can benefit from several kinds of therapy. Physical therapy focuses on helping patients attain greater muscle control, coordination, and balance through basic physical tasks. Using physical therapy, it may be possible to enhance a CP patient’s ability to walk or balance. Speech therapy is used to overcome problems with enunciation, including secondary issues such as lisping. Occupational therapy focuses on the improvement of cognitive function through a variety of simple tasks, and recreational therapy contributes to the development of social and independent living skills in recreational environments.

Cerebral Palsy Treatment Overview: One portion of an extremely comprehensive guide from the University of California, San Diego, offering information on cerebral palsy from diagnosis to late-life treatment. This section focuses on treatment options for lifelong mitigation of some symptoms, with particular depth of information on physical therapy.

American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine: Large amount of information from the frontiers of the latest CP research.

Bobath Center Cerebral Palsy Treatment: Charity in the United Kingdom offering resources related to occupational therapy, specifically for cerebral palsy.

Research Resources: Collection of resources on the use of music therapy in treating complications related to CP.

Conclusion

Cerebral palsy is the focus of a large amount of medical research every year. Though much of this research deals with younger patients, more and more attention is being paid to CP sufferers as they age and seek fuller opportunities and more integration with the rest of society. Living with CP is a daily challenge, but paths to a richer and more fulfilling life are being found. There is not, and may never be a “cure” for CP, but greater understanding by clinicians and the daily success stories of those who overcome their limitations are making.

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A Guide to College for Students with Disabilities

Over the past half century, the help available to students with special needs has made tremendous strides. Today, the government has taken steps to assure that all students, regardless of disabilities, will be able to receive the education that they deserve.

 

Children with special needs are now able to receive accommodations to assist them in getting a proper education. The accommodations can range from simple items such as receiving extra time to complete a test to ensuring that the student has adequate access to the classroom. All of these are due to the 1973 Federal Rehabilitation Act which prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities.

The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 made it illegal for people to be discriminated against, just because of a disability. The Act also mandated that buildings be accessible to those with physical handicaps as well as other commonly used facilities. The Act had four major sections covering areas such as employment, civil rights and technology for people with disabilities.

Young people with disabilities now have opportunities to attend post-secondary education institutions. They are allowed to be students studying a wide range of subjects, without limitation or discrimination. Colleges and universities, like elementary and secondary schools, need to legally follow the mandates of Section 504.

We have compiled a collection of resources for students with disabilities for your reference:

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A Guide To The Paralympics Games

With the world gearing up for the 2014 Olympics, we’d like to take a moment to remind you that Sochi will also play host to this year’s Paralympics. If you’re not familiar with the paralympics, or you just need a refresher, read through our rundown on the history of the games.

The Paralympic Games are games played in the style of the Olympic Games, but are for athletes with physical and intellectual disabilities. The prefix “Para” stems from the word “parallel,” and alludes to the fact that the competition takes place alongside the Olympic Games. 

Sir Ludwig Guttmann founded the games in 1948. He wanted to start a sport that involved veterans from World War II. Within a few years, veterans from other nations joined in the competition. By 1960, a formal games strategy was formed, and the once informal competition garnered the official name of the Paralympic Games. They Games are held every two years, with both winter and summer Games being staged, and are held in the same host city and venues as the Olympic Games.

There are currently 26 different sports on the Paralympic Games program – 21 summer and 5 winter. Winter sports include alpine and cross country skiing, biathlon, wheelchair curling and sled hockey, while summer sports feature many familiar to Olympic Games fans, including track & field, swimming, cycling, Three sports are specific to the Paralympic Games – wheelchair rugby, boccia and goalball, a sport for athletes who are blind or visually impaired. Two new sports, paratriathlon and canoe, will make their Paralympic Games debut in 2016 in Rio de Janeiro.

Athletes are categorized by their disabilities and these categories are then classified based on the sport being played. The athlete categories include amputee, cerebral palsy/traumatic brain injury/stroke, wheelchair-users, blind/visual impairment, and les autres. Les autres is a French phrase which means “the others,” and this category includes all athletes that don’t fit into the other five categories. Some well-known Paralympic athletes include, April Holmes, Erin Popovich, Rudy Garcia-Tolson, Matt Scott, Chris Waddell, Sarah Will, and Jessica Long. Then there is Ragnhild Myklebust of Norway, who holds the record for the most medals ever won at the Paralympic Winter Games. Over the course of her illustrious career, she won 22 medals, 17 of which were gold.

Over the years, the Paralympic Games have seen their fair share of controversy. In 2000, some non-disabled athletes from Spain entered the Games and played on the basketball team for athletes with intellectual disabilities. This prompted the International Paralympic Committeeto suspend all intellectually disabled athletes from Paralympic competition until further evaluation. The committee claimed it would re-evaluate this after the Beijing Games, but no final decision has been made. Doping has also become an issue. During the Sydney Games in 2000, 14 athletes tested positive for doping, and 10 of those were participating in the powerlifting competition. Despite its controversies, the Paralympic Games are a great way for those with physical and visual disabilities to shine and prove their athletic greatness.

For more information about the Paralympic movement, please refer to the following websites:

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